Economy & Agriculture

Brass makers, 'Wojalir'

Among the Raj Gonds are a clan of brass makers, called ‘wojalir‘. Their specialised skill is to make brassware by the lost wax (cire perdu) method. They are part of the traditional phratry, ‘saga‘ and clan ‘pari‘ system, and intermarry with the Raj Gonds. They also own land and are agriculturalists. They make such objects as ‘poyla‘, bowls of volumetric measurement, table and hanging oil-lamps, incense burners and votive offerings for the gods. They have the traditional knowledge of collecting bees-wax from the cliff-hanging bee hives, which they use to make their wax moulds. These then encased in clay, and the beeswax is melted out to leave a space into which molten brass is poured. The baked clay is then removed to reveal the brass object.  It is then polished and engraved and sold to the customers’ requirements.

The brass makers of Ginnedhari are members of the Vedma clan. Vedma Mahadu was a light-hearted and very intelligent man, who was one of my main informants. His two sons had inherited his specialist trade and followed in his tradition. These 12 photos show the intricacies of brass founding.

Woja Kova Motiram of Ginnedhari, master brass founder, smoothing off the layer of wax filaments to form the basic mould of a sacred horse that will be placed as a votive offering on the Bhimalik shrine of the neighbouring Kolam tribe in Sungapur village.
Woja Kova Motiram of Ginnedhari, master brass founder, smoothing off the layer of wax filaments to form the basic mould of a sacred horse that will be placed as a votive offering on the Bhimalik shrine of the neighbouring Kolam tribe in Sungapur village.
A layer of beeswax filaments is applied to the clay inner former of the mould. They are then smoothed off before the filament decorations are added.
A layer of beeswax filaments is applied to the clay inner former of the mould. They are then smoothed off before the filament decorations are added.
Sedam Maru Master showing me the brass-making technique of the Woja family of Kova Motiram, who have been casting incense burners, staff handles and votive offerings for their clients.
Sedam Maru Master showing me the brass-making technique of the Woja family of Kova Motiram, who have been casting incense burners, staff handles and votive offerings for their clients.
Kova Motiram’s son extruding filaments of wax that will be laid over the clay former and then smoothed off to make the mould of the brass object. The filaments will then be applied to basic form to decorate it.
Kova Motiram’s son extruding filaments of wax that will be laid over the clay former and then smoothed off to make the mould of the brass object. The filaments will then be applied to basic form to decorate it.
Kova Motiram’s son extruding filaments of beeswax, while his father, the master brass maker, applies the filaments to the mould's former to make patterns on it that will later be melted out and replaced with molten brass.
Kova Motiram’s son extruding filaments of beeswax, while his father, the master brass maker, applies the filaments to the mould's former to make patterns on it that will later be melted out and replaced with molten brass.
Kova Motiram, master brass founder, 'Woja', applying the beeswax forelegs to a sacred horse after the wax filaments patterns have been applied to its body. This horse, the vehicle of the deity Bhimalik, will be placed as a votive offering in the shrine of the neighbouring Kolam tribe in Sungapur village.
Kova Motiram, master brass founder, 'Woja', applying the beeswax forelegs to a sacred horse after the wax filaments patterns have been applied to its body. This horse, the vehicle of the deity Bhimalik, will be placed as a votive offering in the shrine of the neighbouring Kolam tribe in Sungapur village.
The finished beeswax mould of a horse that has an inner former of clay. This will next be covered in a clay outer layer. When the clay is dried, the wax will be melted out and molten brass poured in to form the finished brass horse. This brass horse will then be given as a votive offering at the Bhimalik shrine in Sungapur.
The finished beeswax mould of a horse that has an inner former of clay. This will next be covered in a clay outer layer. When the clay is dried, the wax will be melted out and molten brass poured in to form the finished brass horse. This brass horse will then be given as a votive offering at the Bhimalik shrine in Sungapur.
Kova Motiram applying the outer layer of clay to his beeswax mould of a brass peacock oil lamp. When the clay is dry, the wax will be melted out and used again. The space that it leaves will be filled with molten brass to form the final oil lamp.
Kova Motiram applying the outer layer of clay to his beeswax mould of a brass peacock oil lamp. When the clay is dry, the wax will be melted out and used again. The space that it leaves will be filled with molten brass to form the final oil lamp.
Kova Motiram with two finished beeswax moulds of peacock oil lamps and two brass dancing bells.
Kova Motiram with two finished beeswax moulds of peacock oil lamps and two brass dancing bells.
The finished objects. Two brass peacock oil lamps and a brass horse votive offering to the deity Bhimalik.
The finished objects. Two brass peacock oil lamps and a brass horse votive offering to the deity Bhimalik.
Kova Motiram applying the final outer layer of clay to his beeswax mould of a brass peacock oil lamp. When the clay is dry, the wax will be melted out and used again. The space that it leaves will be filled with molten brass to form the final object. Beside it is the finished clay coated mould of a sacred brass horse.
Kova Motiram applying the final outer layer of clay to his beeswax mould of a brass peacock oil lamp. When the clay is dry, the wax will be melted out and used again. The space that it leaves will be filled with molten brass to form the final object. Beside it is the finished clay coated mould of a sacred brass horse.
Kova Motiram holding a finished brass peacock oil lamp that he has just finished.
Kova Motiram holding a finished brass peacock oil lamp that he has just finished.
All Raj Gonds do their own carpentry. Here a farmer is making a joint in the shaft of a plough shaft for a bullock cart harness, using a chisel and an adze.
All Raj Gonds do their own carpentry. Here a farmer is making a joint in the shaft of a plough shaft for a bullock cart harness, using a chisel and an adze.
He is a skilled carpenter and has all the tools that he needs.
He is a skilled carpenter and has all the tools that he needs.
These tribal 'adivasi' people are farmers who make their own agricultural instruments. Here he is making his own wooden beams for a harrowing plough to break the soil. It will be drawn by his own plough bullocks.
These tribal 'adivasi' people are farmers who make their own agricultural instruments. Here he is making his own wooden beams for a harrowing plough to break the soil. It will be drawn by his own plough bullocks.

Carpentry

In the absence of specialist Hindu caste carpenters, ‘mistri‘, these tribal adivasis are self-sufficient in many skills, including carpentry.

Castor oil

2 photos of women sowing the seeds of castor oil plants. Feminine fertility is said to empower the seeds. It is preferred if they do this back-breaking work. Castor oil is  used for both cooking and to fuel their nightlight lamps.

Hand sowing castor oil seeds. They will give a crop of bushy castor oil plants with large bean-like seeds, which can be crushed and oil extracted for using in night time lamps, for cooking, and as a medicine for constipation. It was an important crop before the arrival of electricity.
Hand sowing castor oil seeds. They will give a crop of bushy castor oil plants with large bean-like seeds, which can be crushed and oil extracted for using in night time lamps, for cooking, and as a medicine for constipation. It was an important crop before the arrival of electricity.
The back breaking work of sowing castor oil seeds, that will give them oil for their household lamps in the days before electrification. In the background are a pair of plough bullocks with a harrow that breaks up the clods of earth into a fine tilth. This is done in the heat of summer awaiting the monsoon rains of late July and August, that will germinate the seeds.
The back breaking work of sowing castor oil seeds, that will give them oil for their household lamps in the days before electrification. In the background are a pair of plough bullocks with a harrow that breaks up the clods of earth into a fine tilth. This is done in the heat of summer awaiting the monsoon rains of late July and August, that will germinate the seeds.
Here one farmer has been given permission to clear some wasteland within the certified village boundary. A year after slashing and burning the jungle he is about to plough his new field with his oxen in the background.
Here one farmer has been given permission to clear some wasteland within the certified village boundary. A year after slashing and burning the jungle he is about to plough his new field with his oxen in the background.

Clearing forest

The time for clearing virgin forest was after the cold season, in January and February. In past centuries the Raj Gonds practised shifting slash-and-burn agriculture, ‘jhum‘. However, now that most of the forest has been reserved by the central Government Forestry Department, ‘jhum‘ cultivation is forbidden. Now they cannot increase their landholdings.

Draught animals, Bullocks & cattle

Training draught animals is a vital in the lives of subsistence agriculturalists, before the arrival of petrol driven tractors, cars and mopeds. A lot of knowledge and experience was needed to maintain a source of power  for ploughing and transportation. The manure they supply was vital for soil fertility before the arrival of fertilisers. The Raj Gonds do not keep cows for milkfor drinking as it is vital for calves to grow into healthy draught cattle.

Training a bullock to respond to the wishes of the driver is a time consuming and skilful task. A well-trained pair of bullocks can reach a high price when sold. A household that does not have good draught cattle is at a disadvantage and will have difficulty in maintaining itself. Every household needs at least one pair of well-trained bullocks.

Having a pair of trained draught bullocks was the pride of every successful household, a bit like having a tractor, car or a moped today. Here a young man stands proudly with his bullocks and his goad in his hand, ready for a day’s work ploughing.
Having a pair of trained draught bullocks was the pride of every successful household, a bit like having a tractor, car or a moped today. Here a young man stands proudly with his bullocks and his goad in his hand, ready for a day’s work ploughing.
Every well-off household requires a bullock cart and at least one pair of trained bullocks. They are essential for ploughing and transport. Without a pair of draught bullocks, a family will find it difficult to prosper. Their carts and ploughs are made in the village.
Every well-off household requires a bullock cart and at least one pair of trained bullocks. They are essential for ploughing and transport. Without a pair of draught bullocks, a family will find it difficult to prosper. Their carts and ploughs are made in the village.
Every morning, in Gangapur, during the ploughing season, before the monsoon rains, the man of the family fetches his trained plough bullocks from his stable outside the village, and takes them to his courtyard to get ready for a day in the fields.
Every morning, in Gangapur, during the ploughing season, before the monsoon rains, the man of the family fetches his trained plough bullocks from his stable outside the village, and takes them to his courtyard to get ready for a day in the fields.
Female cows are occasionally milked for making tea, and clarified butter, 'ghee'. Most milk is left for the infant calves. This sick cow was notoriously bad tempered and had to be tethered while being milked.
Female cows are occasionally milked for making tea, and clarified butter, 'ghee'. Most milk is left for the infant calves. This sick cow was notoriously bad tempered and had to be tethered while being milked.
Every household needs at least one pair of trained plough bullocks to cultivate their fields and produce the millet/sorghum 'jawaar', and seed grains essential for their self-sufficient and sustainable lifestyle.
Every household needs at least one pair of trained plough bullocks to cultivate their fields and produce the millet/sorghum 'jawaar', and seed grains essential for their self-sufficient and sustainable lifestyle.
Occasionally the wealthier members of the village, in this case the Mokashi, the Raja’s agent from Gangapur, has a fine pony and its calf. It is important for keeping in touch with the Raj Gond Raja some 30 miles to the west in Utnoor, before telephones and the internet were available.
Occasionally the wealthier members of the village, in this case the Mokashi, the Raja’s agent from Gangapur, has a fine pony and its calf. It is important for keeping in touch with the Raj Gond Raja some 30 miles to the west in Utnoor, before telephones and the internet were available.
Just outside Rompalli village stands a collection of cattle sheds. The cattle are housed here overnight, when they are not working, or grazing in the forest or the fallow fields.
Just outside Rompalli village stands a collection of cattle sheds. The cattle are housed here overnight, when they are not working, or grazing in the forest or the fallow fields.
Fishing nets need constant repairs. Few villages in the Asifabad area have large ponds or lakes and fishing is only done in rivers.
Fishing nets need constant repairs. Few villages in the Asifabad area have large ponds or lakes and fishing is only done in rivers.
These circular fishing nets have a rim of lead weights. They can be thrown and spread over an area of a river and sink to capture the fish. The catch forms a small part of their diet. They are often dried and powdered to give more flavour to their curries.
These circular fishing nets have a rim of lead weights. They can be thrown and spread over an area of a river and sink to capture the fish. The catch forms a small part of their diet. They are often dried and powdered to give more flavour to their curries.

Fishing

Fishing is not a major pastime in this area of black cotton soils, that does not have ponds, though nets are useful for fishing in the nearby rivers, such as the Vatti Vagu.

Grain drying

Keeping stored grain dry is important to prevent it developing fungi and mold. All their various grains are spread out in the sun, and freshly harvested grain has to be carefully sun-dried,

All the women and children of the family are busy looking after their stored grain, and winnowing it to keep it clean and laying it out in the sun to keep it dry.
All the women and children of the family are busy looking after their stored grain, and winnowing it to keep it clean and laying it out in the sun to keep it dry.
Making sure that harvested grain is completely dry is an endless task for the women. If it is not totally dry it will become moldy and cannot be stored and used later in the year. Seed grain for sowing next year is a valuable commodity that has to be carefully looked after. Here millet or sorghum 'jawaar', castor oil seed, gram 'channa' and various lentils are being sun-dried.
Making sure that harvested grain is completely dry is an endless task for the women. If it is not totally dry it will become moldy and cannot be stored and used later in the year. Seed grain for sowing next year is a valuable commodity that has to be carefully looked after. Here millet or sorghum 'jawaar', castor oil seed, gram 'channa' and various lentils are being sun-dried.
Gently the millet or sorghum seeds are spread out in the sun and carefully examined for any sign of mould or grit.
Gently the millet or sorghum seeds are spread out in the sun and carefully examined for any sign of mould or grit.
As soon as the gram (channa) has been harvested it has to be husked, winnowed and laid out in the sun to dry. This is the ceaseless work of the women.
As soon as the gram (channa) has been harvested it has to be husked, winnowed and laid out in the sun to dry. This is the ceaseless work of the women.
Both father and his daughter-in-law help each other to grind their millet or sorghum, 'jawaar', into flour, ready for mixing with water, rolling it out and roasting it to make 'chapatis'.
Both father and his daughter-in-law help each other to grind their millet or sorghum, 'jawaar', into flour, ready for mixing with water, rolling it out and roasting it to make 'chapatis'.
The patient job of grinding millet/sorghum (jawaar) between two granite grindstones into flour, ready for making a nutritious bread (chapati).
The patient job of grinding millet/sorghum (jawaar) between two granite grindstones into flour, ready for making a nutritious bread (chapati).

Grain grinding, flour making

The staple grain of the Raj Gonds was millet, or sorghum, ‘jawaar‘. This needs grinding between quern stones to make it into a flour for roasting or frying into a ‘chapati‘.

Grain storage

After drying the harvested sorghum or millet, ”jawaar‘, it is safely stored in large woven split bamboo baskets.

The main crop of millet or sorghum 'jawaar' is often kept in specially built split bamboo bins outdoors behind the house and raised off the ground to let it breathe and be out of reach of rats and mice.
The main crop of millet or sorghum 'jawaar' is often kept in specially built split bamboo bins outdoors behind the house and raised off the ground to let it breathe and be out of reach of rats and mice.
The main crop of millet/sorghum (jawaar) is stored in large split bamboo bins at the back of the house. It is raised off the ground to keep it out of reach of rats and mice.
The main crop of millet/sorghum (jawaar) is stored in large split bamboo bins at the back of the house. It is raised off the ground to keep it out of reach of rats and mice.
The grandmother, her grandson and granddaughter are husking the lentil, 'dal' crop in their courtyard. Her granddaughter-in-law is feeding her baby. The two wives of her sons, on the left, are winnowing the lentils. A truly cooperative family working together for the common good.
The grandmother, her grandson and granddaughter are husking the lentil, 'dal' crop in their courtyard. Her granddaughter-in-law is feeding her baby. The two wives of her sons, on the left, are winnowing the lentils. A truly cooperative family working together for the common good.
Winnowing grain is done by the women using shallow fan trays, throwing it up in the air to separate the heavier seeds from the lighter chaff, which falls to the front and is tipped out. A peaceful job to do with a good friend.
Winnowing grain is done by the women using shallow fan trays, throwing it up in the air to separate the heavier seeds from the lighter chaff, which falls to the front and is tipped out. A peaceful job to do with a good friend.
After the chickpeas have been harvested and left to dry, the men and women get together to thresh the crop with wooden battens. Later they take it home for husking. A good example of cooperative work - many hands making light work.
After the chickpeas have been harvested and left to dry, the men and women get together to thresh the crop with wooden battens. Later they take it home for husking. A good example of cooperative work - many hands making light work.
Using a stick or batten, the dried seeds of lentils, 'dal', are broken out and husked out of the seed pods, before being winnowed to clean out any remaining chaff.
Using a stick or batten, the dried seeds of lentils, 'dal', are broken out and husked out of the seed pods, before being winnowed to clean out any remaining chaff.
The millet or sorghum, 'jawaar', seed heads are left out to dry in the family courtyard. All the implements, baskets and winnowing fans, are ready for the winnowing to begin. The son hangs up his wet dhoti to dry. His elderly mother has just finished husking the maize, 'makai', for the days evening meal.
The millet or sorghum, 'jawaar', seed heads are left out to dry in the family courtyard. All the implements, baskets and winnowing fans, are ready for the winnowing to begin. The son hangs up his wet dhoti to dry. His elderly mother has just finished husking the maize, 'makai', for the days evening meal.
In a street in Guddipet an elderly woman lays out millet/sorghum seed heads to dry before winnowing the chaff. Note a newly carved yoke on the right. It will be used to harness a pair of bullocks together.
In a street in Guddipet an elderly woman lays out millet/sorghum seed heads to dry before winnowing the chaff. Note a newly carved yoke on the right. It will be used to harness a pair of bullocks together.
With the chickpea crop harvested and tied in bundles and stooked, the men extract the seeds by threshing them and blow the chaff away with winnowing fans.
With the chickpea crop harvested and tied in bundles and stooked, the men extract the seeds by threshing them and blow the chaff away with winnowing fans.

Grain winnowing and threshing

When harvested, all crops are brought to the family’s threshing ground to remove the grain from the stem. The seed heads must then be husked and dried. Each household will have its own threshing floor that will be carefully flattened, beaten and dunged. Small crops, like lentils, will often be threshed in the household’s courtyard.

Herding and livestock

Taking the family livestock out of the village to graze on wasteland surrounding the village, and to the forest, is a daily task, done by the young men and boys of the family. Taking them to a nearby river to drink is important.

On the day of the 'podela poymar' festival, that blesses the clearing of shrubs that have grown on fallow fields, which provide grazing for their livestock, a young boy and a teenager drive the goats out of the village to graze for the day.
On the day of the 'podela poymar' festival, that blesses the clearing of shrubs that have grown on fallow fields, which provide grazing for their livestock, a young boy and a teenager drive the goats out of the village to graze for the day.
Every morning the trained draught bullocks, the most valuable economic mainstay of farmers, are gathered in the centre of the village by their owners. They will be taken out to graze, usually by one or two experienced adults.
Every morning the trained draught bullocks, the most valuable economic mainstay of farmers, are gathered in the centre of the village by their owners. They will be taken out to graze, usually by one or two experienced adults.
Every morning the cattle and goats are driven out of the village to graze on grass, stubble, and herbs in the forest or wasteland. This is normally done by teenagers and young men.
Every morning the cattle and goats are driven out of the village to graze on grass, stubble, and herbs in the forest or wasteland. This is normally done by teenagers and young men.
After grazing the goats, sheep and cattle, and taking them back home in the evening, the assembled livestock are taken to the Bandal Vagu, the nearby river, to have a good drink of water.
After grazing the goats, sheep and cattle, and taking them back home in the evening, the assembled livestock are taken to the Bandal Vagu, the nearby river, to have a good drink of water.
After the assembled livestock have had their drink at the Bandal Vagu, the nearby river, some women of the village also come to take pots of water back home.
After the assembled livestock have had their drink at the Bandal Vagu, the nearby river, some women of the village also come to take pots of water back home.
The final layer of masonry is being laid to the wall of Maru Master’s new irrigation well. He stands proudly beside it. This is a major achievement, the first irrigation well to be dug in Ginnedhari. Maru Master is the retired ex-teacher, who started the first school, and is one of the most forward thinking of the farmers in Ginnedhari. He sits proudly beside the wall of his new well.
The final layer of masonry is being laid to the wall of Maru Master’s new irrigation well. He stands proudly beside it. This is a major achievement, the first irrigation well to be dug in Ginnedhari. Maru Master is the retired ex-teacher, who started the first school, and is one of the most forward thinking of the farmers in Ginnedhari. He sits proudly beside the wall of his new well.
The author, and Abdul Majid, stand behind Sedam Maru Master sitting on his new irrigation well. This is a major achievement, the first irrigation well to be dug in Ginnedhari. Maru Master, the retired ex-teacher, who started the first school in Ginnedhari, is one of the most forward thinking of the farmers in Ginnedhari. He sits proudly beside the wall of his new well.
The author, and Abdul Majid, stand behind Sedam Maru Master sitting on his new irrigation well. This is a major achievement, the first irrigation well to be dug in Ginnedhari. Maru Master, the retired ex-teacher, who started the first school in Ginnedhari, is one of the most forward thinking of the farmers in Ginnedhari. He sits proudly beside the wall of his new well.
Sedam Maru Master, in a turban and spectacles, is the most forward thinking of the farmers in village Ginnedhari. He stands proudly beside a man concreting the wall of his new well.
Sedam Maru Master, in a turban and spectacles, is the most forward thinking of the farmers in village Ginnedhari. He stands proudly beside a man concreting the wall of his new well.
In the summer dry season, a single bullock is being used to raise leather skinfulls of water from a deep well to irrigate a field. This is a rare and more traditional method of irrigation.
In the summer dry season, a single bullock is being used to raise leather skinfulls of water from a deep well to irrigate a field. This is a rare and more traditional method of irrigation.

Irrigation & Well building

In a monsoon climate irrigation wells make a major improvement in the reliability of crops. However building a large bore irrigation well means raising the costs from the Integrated Tribal Development Agency. This  requires political influence. Some large and well connected landowners have managed this.  This then requires diesel driven pumps.

Leatherworkers, 'Madgi'

The ‘Madgis‘ are a Hindu ‘dalit‘ caste, who have settled in a separate hamlet just outside Ginnedhari. As traditional leather workers they provide an essential service. It is interesting that the tribals of Ginnedhari, who are proud not to be part of the Hindu caste system, should have accepted a Hindu caste into their village. Maybe this is due to Ginnedhari being a large village, unlike the small hamlets in which most Raj Gonds live.

The Madgi people are a Hindu low caste group of 'dalits', leather workers. They do not own any land and live by curing cattle hides and making leather goods such as sandals, harnesses, water bags and straps. Here a Madgi has prepared a hide and is curing it by filling it with a solution of lime and water.
The Madgi people are a Hindu low caste group of 'dalits', leather workers. They do not own any land and live by curing cattle hides and making leather goods such as sandals, harnesses, water bags and straps. Here a Madgi has prepared a hide and is curing it by filling it with a solution of lime and water.
The weekly market is held in a field on the edge of Ginnedhari. Hindu and Muslim traders set up stalls selling a variety of goods and foodstuffs. Nearby locals come to buy and sell their produce. It is an opportunity to meet friends and relatives from nearby villages and people from other tribal groups. Here a trader has a large can of cooking oil and is measuring it out and pouring it into the shoppers bottles. In the foreground a trader is selling coconuts and onions.
The weekly market is held in a field on the edge of Ginnedhari. Hindu and Muslim traders set up stalls selling a variety of goods and foodstuffs. Nearby locals come to buy and sell their produce. It is an opportunity to meet friends and relatives from nearby villages and people from other tribal groups. Here a trader has a large can of cooking oil and is measuring it out and pouring it into the shoppers bottles. In the foreground a trader is selling coconuts and onions.
Three women with shopping bags are paying the non-tribal trader for his haberdashery goods. He is selling mirrors, needles, thread, 'kohl' eyeliner, tea strainers, clips, hooks, and buttons for their clothing. He keeps his money in a tin box.
Three women with shopping bags are paying the non-tribal trader for his haberdashery goods. He is selling mirrors, needles, thread, 'kohl' eyeliner, tea strainers, clips, hooks, and buttons for their clothing. He keeps his money in a tin box.
At the weekly market in Ginnedhari this trader has a large box of coloured glass and plastic bangles. He is squeezing her hand to fit his bangles onto a girl’s wrist. In the foreground is an elderly lady with old-fashioned silver bangles.
At the weekly market in Ginnedhari this trader has a large box of coloured glass and plastic bangles. He is squeezing her hand to fit his bangles onto a girl’s wrist. In the foreground is an elderly lady with old-fashioned silver bangles.
This trader is selling polished rice. He measures it out in a metal bowl and pours it into her cloth. The Raj Gonds grow very little rice, as their black-cotton soil, 'regar' is not suitable for irrigated rice. Their main crop is sorghum millet, 'jawaar'. Rice, though less nutritious, is considered higher class and usually kept for special occasions, and for feeding non-tribal visitors.
This trader is selling polished rice. He measures it out in a metal bowl and pours it into her cloth. The Raj Gonds grow very little rice, as their black-cotton soil, 'regar' is not suitable for irrigated rice. Their main crop is sorghum millet, 'jawaar'. Rice, though less nutritious, is considered higher class and usually kept for special occasions, and for feeding non-tribal visitors.
This female trader is selling pieces of printed cloth for women to make into bodices. A shopper is showing her money and bargaining for a good price.
This female trader is selling pieces of printed cloth for women to make into bodices. A shopper is showing her money and bargaining for a good price.
This lady is working out how much paraffin she can afford to buy. In the absence of electricity, paraffin and castor oil is used to burn in wick lamps after sunset.
This lady is working out how much paraffin she can afford to buy. In the absence of electricity, paraffin and castor oil is used to burn in wick lamps after sunset.
This lady is paying the trader for the sugar she is buying. He is a spice dealer selling sugar, chillies, salt, garlic, turmeric, cooking oil and ginger. Next to him is a sweetmeat trader selling 'jellabies'.
This lady is paying the trader for the sugar she is buying. He is a spice dealer selling sugar, chillies, salt, garlic, turmeric, cooking oil and ginger. Next to him is a sweetmeat trader selling 'jellabies'.
This Raj Gond man is examining a printed 'lungi' that he wants to buy.
This Raj Gond man is examining a printed 'lungi' that he wants to buy.
This trader is measuring out maize by volume that he is pouring into a tribal man’s cloth. He also sells 'jagari', raw cane sugar and potatoes.
This trader is measuring out maize by volume that he is pouring into a tribal man’s cloth. He also sells 'jagari', raw cane sugar and potatoes.
The weekly market just on the edge of the village of Ginnedhari.
The weekly market just on the edge of the village of Ginnedhari.
The weekly market just on the outskirts of Ginnedhari. At the foot of the hills in the background are the two smaller villages of Moinda and Guddipet.
The weekly market just on the outskirts of Ginnedhari. At the foot of the hills in the background are the two smaller villages of Moinda and Guddipet.
One of the most popular stalls is the cloth sellers, where all the latest patterns can be compared.
One of the most popular stalls is the cloth sellers, where all the latest patterns can be compared.
Vital to a good meal is the spice and herb seller.
Vital to a good meal is the spice and herb seller.

Markets

Ginnedhari, being one of the largest villages in the area, has a weekly market on Tuesday, where non-tribal traders from Asifabad, Tandur and Bellampali, on the main Nagpur to Hyderabad highway, come to sell their wares and buy a host of local crops and forest produce.

OIL PRESSING

Pressing oil seeds to extract many different types of oil is an important task. They grow castor oil seeds for making lamp oil, mustard seeds and sesame seeds for cooking oil. It is a job when all the family  works together to produce such a commodity.

The Raj Gonds press the seeds in this device to extract the oil with a wooden pestle in a wooden mortar full of oil seeds. A girl on top gives it weight as the pestle is twisted round to crush the seeds and squeeze the oil out.
The Raj Gonds press the seeds in this device to extract the oil with a wooden pestle in a wooden mortar full of oil seeds. A girl on top gives it weight as the pestle is twisted round to crush the seeds and squeeze the oil out.
Here the girl soaks up the extracted oil in the mortar with a cloth and squeezes it into the nearby metal bowl. The large wooden yoke gives weight to the pestle pole.
Here the girl soaks up the extracted oil in the mortar with a cloth and squeezes it into the nearby metal bowl. The large wooden yoke gives weight to the pestle pole.
Here the girl soaks up the extracted oil in the mortar.
Here the girl soaks up the extracted oil in the mortar.
They look happy with what they have made themselves, rather than buying paraffin in the market for which the need cash.
They look happy with what they have made themselves, rather than buying paraffin in the market for which the need cash.
They find it a great joke that I, from a far-off country, should think it worth a photograph.
They find it a great joke that I, from a far-off country, should think it worth a photograph.
It is hard work requiring cooperation, precision and care.
It is hard work requiring cooperation, precision and care.
He carries a bamboo pole that he uses as a goad with a small spatula to keep the tip of the plough clear. He holds the reins of the cattle to direct them. Here a large field belonging to the village headman is being ploughed cooperatively. It is hard and tedious work guiding both the plough and bullocks in the heat of summer.
He carries a bamboo pole that he uses as a goad with a small spatula to keep the tip of the plough clear. He holds the reins of the cattle to direct them. Here a large field belonging to the village headman is being ploughed cooperatively. It is hard and tedious work guiding both the plough and bullocks in the heat of summer.
Each plough turns a single furrow to a depth of eight inches. Here many of the villagers work cooperatively, using their own bullocks and ploughs on one of the headman’s fields - many hands making light work.
Each plough turns a single furrow to a depth of eight inches. Here many of the villagers work cooperatively, using their own bullocks and ploughs on one of the headman’s fields - many hands making light work.
This farmer has two mature plough bullocks with long horns that shows their age and experience.
This farmer has two mature plough bullocks with long horns that shows their age and experience.
By ploughing a large field cooperatively, the job can be done quickly and at the end of the job all the workmen will be given a meal.
By ploughing a large field cooperatively, the job can be done quickly and at the end of the job all the workmen will be given a meal.
The plough is a complex construction of locally sourced timber, held together with rope made from wild 'sabai' grass twined by the menfolk. It tills the land to a depth of about eight inches.
The plough is a complex construction of locally sourced timber, held together with rope made from wild 'sabai' grass twined by the menfolk. It tills the land to a depth of about eight inches.
Ada Jalpati Rao, the son of the Patel of Rompalli, who was my main informant and interpreter, was also an experienced farmer and ploughman.
Ada Jalpati Rao, the son of the Patel of Rompalli, who was my main informant and interpreter, was also an experienced farmer and ploughman.
They are ploughing dispersed trenches for growing rows of castor oil bushes. Each plough is followed by a woman, who drops a castor oil seed after every four feet. While only men are allowed to handle the plough that penetrates the earth, only women sow the seeds, making sure that their femininity will give the seed fertility and grow well.
They are ploughing dispersed trenches for growing rows of castor oil bushes. Each plough is followed by a woman, who drops a castor oil seed after every four feet. While only men are allowed to handle the plough that penetrates the earth, only women sow the seeds, making sure that their femininity will give the seed fertility and grow well.
Here the soil is being harrowed to break up the clods. He needs to put weight on the plough head to keep it as deep as possible.
Here the soil is being harrowed to break up the clods. He needs to put weight on the plough head to keep it as deep as possible.
The women’s seed sowing tube is pulled behind the plough so that she can sow a castor oil seed every few feet.
The women’s seed sowing tube is pulled behind the plough so that she can sow a castor oil seed every few feet.
Here the three-headed plough, with a central hopper and three seed tubes, is being drawn across the already ploughed and harrowed earth. The man works the plough, but he needs a woman’s hand to drop the seed into the central hopper, thus imbuing the seed with her feminine fertility.
Here the three-headed plough, with a central hopper and three seed tubes, is being drawn across the already ploughed and harrowed earth. The man works the plough, but he needs a woman’s hand to drop the seed into the central hopper, thus imbuing the seed with her feminine fertility.
The single-headed plough digs deep into the earth. It will later be harrowed to break up the resulting clods of earth.
The single-headed plough digs deep into the earth. It will later be harrowed to break up the resulting clods of earth.
A handsome pair of hump-backed Brahma bullocks - the pride of any farming family. Notice how deep the yoke sinks into the hump while pulling the plough through the hard dry soil of the long hot summer.
A handsome pair of hump-backed Brahma bullocks - the pride of any farming family. Notice how deep the yoke sinks into the hump while pulling the plough through the hard dry soil of the long hot summer.
The headman of Ginnedhari looks on as all the farmers of his village work together to plough his ample acreage of land. As headman, and descendant of the original settler of the village, he will usually have the largest acreage of good millet growing black-cotton soil fields.
The headman of Ginnedhari looks on as all the farmers of his village work together to plough his ample acreage of land. As headman, and descendant of the original settler of the village, he will usually have the largest acreage of good millet growing black-cotton soil fields.
Here a cooperative team of villagers are ploughing one of the village headman's fields. At the end of the job they will all be given a rewarding meal of boiled millet and curry. Meanwhile, in the foreground, untrained cattle are grazing the stubble of last year's millet.
Here a cooperative team of villagers are ploughing one of the village headman's fields. At the end of the job they will all be given a rewarding meal of boiled millet and curry. Meanwhile, in the foreground, untrained cattle are grazing the stubble of last year's millet.
After they have finished ploughing the village headman’s fields, the ploughmen are given a meal of boiled sorghum or millet as payment for their day's work.
After they have finished ploughing the village headman’s fields, the ploughmen are given a meal of boiled sorghum or millet as payment for their day's work.
As a special treat their meal of sorghum is given a rich flavouring of spicy gravy.
As a special treat their meal of sorghum is given a rich flavouring of spicy gravy.
This is another version of the plough. It is a three-headed plough with a central hopper and three tubes that deliver sorghum or millet seeds into the three furrows.
This is another version of the plough. It is a three-headed plough with a central hopper and three tubes that deliver sorghum or millet seeds into the three furrows.
The farmer stands beside his three-headed plough with a central hopper and three tubes that deliver the seeds into the three furrows. Beside it is his small bullock cart. Notice that the yoke can be transferred to either machine.
The farmer stands beside his three-headed plough with a central hopper and three tubes that deliver the seeds into the three furrows. Beside it is his small bullock cart. Notice that the yoke can be transferred to either machine.
A farmer ready to go for a day’s ploughing with his goad and all the ropes that he needs to harness his bullocks and hold the parts of his plough together.
A farmer ready to go for a day’s ploughing with his goad and all the ropes that he needs to harness his bullocks and hold the parts of his plough together.
This farmer returns home after a day out training his young bullocks in the skill of ploughing. You can see that the yoke does not just rest on the bullock’s neck but is attached round the neck to stop them escaping as they are still skittish. The plough itself is a training plough that does not dig into the soil and is easier on the pulling power of these young draught animals.
This farmer returns home after a day out training his young bullocks in the skill of ploughing. You can see that the yoke does not just rest on the bullock’s neck but is attached round the neck to stop them escaping as they are still skittish. The plough itself is a training plough that does not dig into the soil and is easier on the pulling power of these young draught animals.

PLOUGHING & SOWING

The Raj Gonds are a settled farming community dependent on subsistence agriculture. The local soil is a soft friable black-cotton soil called ‘regar‘, that turns into a soft mud in the monsoon rains. It is ideal for growing sorghum or millet, locally called ‘jawaar‘. They grow many different varieties. April, May and June is the season for ploughing and harrowing the land befor the monsoon rains in June and July, when the seeds can be sown. Each family needs at least one pair of trained plough bullocks (castrated bulls). The ploughs and their yoke are made by the farmer with timber from the forests. The ropes, reins and harnesses are made from forest grasses and vines.

RICE TRANSPLANTING

Three of the original settlers in Ginnedhari, who have ample land in the centre of the village, and have been able to raise funds from the Integrated Tribal Development Agency, to grow rice in paddy fields. This is always done by women and requires a large labour force.

Marskola Ramu and his son oversee his army of women transplanting rice. The village Kotwal, Maravi Dhamu, who was my cook, carries his official staff of office. He has been asked to call the women workers. He stands beside Marskola Ramu checking the quality of their backbreaking work. In the background is his diesel water pump.
Marskola Ramu and his son oversee his army of women transplanting rice. The village Kotwal, Maravi Dhamu, who was my cook, carries his official staff of office. He has been asked to call the women workers. He stands beside Marskola Ramu checking the quality of their backbreaking work. In the background is his diesel water pump.
Marskola Ramu, one of the wealthier village elders, keeps a close eye on the women transplanting his rice seedlings. They believe that women have the power of fertility to do such backbreaking work. In the background his water pump is flooding the field.
Marskola Ramu, one of the wealthier village elders, keeps a close eye on the women transplanting his rice seedlings. They believe that women have the power of fertility to do such backbreaking work. In the background his water pump is flooding the field.
Like ploughing this is a cooperative task where a number of women work together on this back-breaking task. Like sowing millet seeds they believe that women have the power of fertility to do such tiring job.
Like ploughing this is a cooperative task where a number of women work together on this back-breaking task. Like sowing millet seeds they believe that women have the power of fertility to do such tiring job.
A villager is twining a single strand cord into a doubled stranded rope. For greater strength he will make a treble stranded rope.
A villager is twining a single strand cord into a doubled stranded rope. For greater strength he will make a treble stranded rope.

ROPE MAKING

The Raj Gond farmer has an endless need for rope and string for all his ploughs and harrows, the harnesses and reins for his draught animals, horses and plough bullocks. He also needs string for his household, in particularly for his cot-beds and stools. He collects ‘sabai‘ grass or hemp from the wastelands and forests. After drying it and soaking it in water, it has to be twined into a strong rope of whatever strength and thickness he needs.

TODDY TAPPING, GAUR

Toddy is the sap from the flower stem of the ‘toddi‘ palm. It is extracted from high up in the tree by the Hindu low caste ‘Gaur‘ toddy tapper, who live in a nearby non-tribal village. In the early morning it is a sweet and  energy giving drink. By the evening it has fermented and is strongly alcoholic, which people like. It brightens up conversation and can make you very drunk. The ‘Gaur’ goes round the village selling it to his tribal and Hindu clients.

The neat pack of tools that a toddy tapper carries on a hip belt. It contains a sharp knife and a scraper for opening the dried end of the flower stem of the toddy palm. This allows the sap to ooze out into a pot that is hung under it. The iron hook is where he hangs the pot while he climbs the palm trunk.
The neat pack of tools that a toddy tapper carries on a hip belt. It contains a sharp knife and a scraper for opening the dried end of the flower stem of the toddy palm. This allows the sap to ooze out into a pot that is hung under it. The iron hook is where he hangs the pot while he climbs the palm trunk.
The toddy tapper has a carrying pole from which hangs his waist harness and his foot strap, that enables him climb the palm trunk. On the end of his shoulder pole is the small pot for holding the sap of the toddy palm.
The toddy tapper has a carrying pole from which hangs his waist harness and his foot strap, that enables him climb the palm trunk. On the end of his shoulder pole is the small pot for holding the sap of the toddy palm.
The toddy tapper climbs the trunk of the toddy palm to reach the flower stem that grows among the leaves. To climb the tree, he uses a strong rope harness around his waist and the palm trunk that he swings up the trunk. Then, with his feet held together by a rope loop, he uses his knees and thighs to push himself up, and swing his waist harness higher. You can see his small tool carrier from which hangs his tools and his toddy collecting pot.
The toddy tapper climbs the trunk of the toddy palm to reach the flower stem that grows among the leaves. To climb the tree, he uses a strong rope harness around his waist and the palm trunk that he swings up the trunk. Then, with his feet held together by a rope loop, he uses his knees and thighs to push himself up, and swing his waist harness higher. You can see his small tool carrier from which hangs his tools and his toddy collecting pot.
Toddy palms can be very tall. Notice the tall one on the horizon. The flower stem that gives off the sap is hidden among the leaves at the top. If uncut and not tapped the flower stem will bear a bunch of dates. If it is cut and scraped every day it will give off many pints of toddy sap.
Toddy palms can be very tall. Notice the tall one on the horizon. The flower stem that gives off the sap is hidden among the leaves at the top. If uncut and not tapped the flower stem will bear a bunch of dates. If it is cut and scraped every day it will give off many pints of toddy sap.
In Ginnedhari there is a low caste Hindu washermen, 'dhobi'. They live in a hamlet outside the village. They live by washing the clothes of their tribal clients. They soap them and slap them against a stone slab in the river and lay them out to dry on the river bank. Folded, but not ironed, the clothes are delivered back to the owners. They have to remember which clothes belong to which clients.
In Ginnedhari there is a low caste Hindu washermen, 'dhobi'. They live in a hamlet outside the village. They live by washing the clothes of their tribal clients. They soap them and slap them against a stone slab in the river and lay them out to dry on the river bank. Folded, but not ironed, the clothes are delivered back to the owners. They have to remember which clothes belong to which clients.
Being harijan dalits, washermen cannot clean the crockery of their clients. Metal objects transmit their pollution. Cleaning the cutlery, and pots and pans is women's work. It is either done at the village well or in the river. Rather than using soap the grease is often removed with a paste of wood ash.
Being harijan dalits, washermen cannot clean the crockery of their clients. Metal objects transmit their pollution. Cleaning the cutlery, and pots and pans is women's work. It is either done at the village well or in the river. Rather than using soap the grease is often removed with a paste of wood ash.
The women’s work of washing the pots, pans, and cutlery in the nearby river, or the village well, is a daily event. Women from different houses and clans can get together and discuss the affairs of the village.
The women’s work of washing the pots, pans, and cutlery in the nearby river, or the village well, is a daily event. Women from different houses and clans can get together and discuss the affairs of the village.

WASHING, CLEANING

Washing and cleaning pots, pans, and clothes is an almost solely female task. Small scale washing is done at home with water from the village well. But if there is a lot to do it will be done in  nearby river or stream.

WATCHING THE CROPS

Watching the ripening crops is an important task for all farmers. It is mostly done by children and teenagers. Wild forest animals, and grazing animals from the village, can do enormous damage to the owners’ economy and wellbeing. Grazing animals like elephants, wild boar, goats, buffaloes and cattle will frequently raid the fields by night or day. But the main problem comes from flocks of birds when the seed heads ripen. The worst raiders are flocks of wild green parakeets, who decimate large areas.

A watchtower, 'machan', in the distance is connected by a rope to a cowbell on a pole in the foreground. The rope is pulled and the jangling bell frightens the birds away. A boring job that requires constant awareness.
A watchtower, 'machan', in the distance is connected by a rope to a cowbell on a pole in the foreground. The rope is pulled and the jangling bell frightens the birds away. A boring job that requires constant awareness.
A young girl stands on the roof of her 'machan', watchtower. At her feet are baskets of stones. They are skilful with their slingshots at frightening flocks of birds. Fibre ropes are in easy reach to jangles the cattle bells. You can see the ripening seed heads of the millet or sorghum. Underneath the roof she has a small shaded room for resting. Here she is twirling here slingshot around her head with a heavy pebble in it that will clatter through the millet stems many yards away. A skilled but tedious job that needs constant attention.
A young girl stands on the roof of her 'machan', watchtower. At her feet are baskets of stones. They are skilful with their slingshots at frightening flocks of birds. Fibre ropes are in easy reach to jangles the cattle bells. You can see the ripening seed heads of the millet or sorghum. Underneath the roof she has a small shaded room for resting. Here she is twirling here slingshot around her head with a heavy pebble in it that will clatter through the millet stems many yards away. A skilled but tedious job that needs constant attention.
A watchtower, 'machan', in a field of almost ripe millet with ropes leading off to cow bells on poles. In the background you can see the closeness of the forested hills where wild animals wait before raiding the fields at night. Luckily there are very few elephants in this area.
A watchtower, 'machan', in a field of almost ripe millet with ropes leading off to cow bells on poles. In the background you can see the closeness of the forested hills where wild animals wait before raiding the fields at night. Luckily there are very few elephants in this area.
A young girl on her watchtower, 'machan', in a field of ripening millet with ropes at hand leading off to cow bells on poles. Shaded from the sun by the tail end of her sari and bored by the endless watchful wait, she examines her fingernails, battered by the endless round of women’s work.
A young girl on her watchtower, 'machan', in a field of ripening millet with ropes at hand leading off to cow bells on poles. Shaded from the sun by the tail end of her sari and bored by the endless watchful wait, she examines her fingernails, battered by the endless round of women’s work.
A watchtower in a field of ripening millet. In the background is the village of Ginnedhari showing the two-story masonry house of the headmman, Patel Atram Lachu.
A watchtower in a field of ripening millet. In the background is the village of Ginnedhari showing the two-story masonry house of the headmman, Patel Atram Lachu.
A teenage boy on his roofless watchtower, 'machan', getting his slingshot ready to scare the parakeets away from his family’s ripening millet seeds.
A teenage boy on his roofless watchtower, 'machan', getting his slingshot ready to scare the parakeets away from his family’s ripening millet seeds.
Removing weeds from the young millet crop is a backbreaking but vital job, usually done by the women, to help keep the soil fertile and the final harvested seeds clean.

WEEDING MILLET, 'JAWAAR'

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